Th Grammar of Knowledge
豆瓣
A Cross-Linguistic Typology
ALEXANDRAY. AIKHENVALD / R . M . W. DIXON
简介
The Grammar of Knowledge offers both a linguistic and anthropological perspective on the expression of information sources, as well as inferences, assumptions, probability and possibility, and gradations of doubt and beliefs in a range of languages. The book investigates twelve different languages, from families including Tibeto-Burman, Nakh-Dagestani, and Austronesian, all of which share the property of requiring the source of information to be specified in every sentence. In these languages, it may not be possible to say merely that 'the man went fishing'. Instead, the source of evidence for the statement must also be specified, usually through the use of evidential markers. For example, it may be necessary to indicate whether the speaker saw the man go fishing; has simply assumed that the man went fishing; or was told that he went fishing by a third party. Some languages, such as Hinuq and Tatar, distinguish between first-hand and non first-hand information sources; others, such as Ersu, mark three distinct types of information - directly required, inferred or assumed, and reported. Some require an even greater level of specification: Ashéninka Perené, from South America, has a specific marker to express suspicions or misgivings. Like others in the series, the book illustrates and examines these aspects of language in different cultural and linguistic settings. It will interest linguists of all persuasions as well as linguistically-minded anthropologists.
目录
Preface x
Notes on the contributors xii
Abbreviations xvi
1 Th grammar of knowledge: a cross-linguistic view of evidentials
and the expression of information source 1
Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald
1 Evidentiality and information source 2
2 Evidentiality: a bird’s-eye view 3
3 Information source through other means 19
4 Choosing, and using, an evidential 29
5 How to talk about knowledge 37
6 About this volume 41
Appendix. On terminological clarity 44
References 45
2 Th grammar of knowledge in Hinuq 52
Diana Forker
1 Introduction 52
2 General properties of the evidential system and formal marking 52
3 Lexical expression of information source 61
4 Reported speech constructions, the quotative enclitic, and
evidentiality 63
5 Cultural conventions 65
6 Summary 67
References 67
3 Th expression of knowledge in Tatar 69
Teija Greed
1 Introduction 69
2 Tatars: cultural context and society 69
3 General characteristics of Tatar 70
4 Grammatical expression of information source in Tatar 71
5 Evidential functions of particles 75
6 Evidentials in use 81
7 Lexical expression of knowledge and attitudes towards it 83
8 Historical development and pathways of evidentials 86
vi Contents
9 Conclusion 87
References 87
4 Th grammar of knowledge in Saaroa 89
Chia-jung Pan
1 Preliminaries 89
2 Organization of the evidential system 92
3 Expression of reported evidentials 93
4 Semantics of reported evidentiality 97
5 Th reported evidential and person 98
6 Origins of the reported evidential 100
7 Reported speech as an evidentiality strategy 101
8 Evidential-like meanings through special markers 102
9 Verbs of perception as lexical means to express knowledge 104
10 Evidentiality, communication, and cultural knowledge 105
11 Summary 106
References 106
5 Th grammar of knowledge in Kurtöp: evidentiality, mirativity,
and expectation of knowledge 108
Gwendolyn Hyslop
1 Introduction 108
2 Background 109
3 Perfective 113
4 Imperfective aspect 117
5 Future tense 119
6 Copulas 120
7 Particles 123
8 Putting it together 127
References 130
6 Th expression of knowledge in Ersu 132
Sihong Zhang
1 Th language 132
2 Th data 133
3 An overview 133
4 Evidentials and their semantics 134
5 Evidentiality and other grammatical categories 138
6 Co-occurrence of evidentials 142
7 Information source conveyed through other means 142
8 Summary 145
References 146
Contents vii
7 Evidentiality in Kalmyk 148
Elena Skribnik and Olga Seesing
1 Kalmyk 148
2 Organization of the evidential system 152
3 Direct evidential 152
4 Indirectivity 155
5 Inferred evidential 157
6 Assumed evidential 159
7 Prospective evidential 160
8 Reported evidential 161
9 Common knowledge 163
10 Evidentials in discourse 164
11 Evidentiality strategies: complementation 165
12 Evidentiality strategy: demonstratives and interpretation
of evidence 167
13 Mirativity 168
14 Summary 169
Text corpus 170
References 170
8 Th non-visible marker in Dyirbal 171
R. M. W. Dixon
1 Introduction 171
2 Grammatical background 172
3 Noun markers 174
4 Verb markers 180
5 Bound forms 182
6 Interrogative noun and verb markers 182
7 Meanings of ŋa- markers 183
8 Conclusion 188
Appendix 188
References 189
9 Th grammar of knowledge in Maaka (Western Chadic, Nigeria) 190
Anne Storch and Jules Jacques Coly
1 Introduction 190
2 Evidentiality, information source, and truth 195
3 Transmission of knowledge 202
4 Lexical expression of perception and cognition 204
5 Conclusions 206
References 207
viii Contents
10 Expression of information source meanings in Ashéninka Perené
(Arawak) 209
Elena Mihas
1 Introduction 209
2 Information source extensions of modal operators and of the verb amampy
‘be in the shade’ 211
3 Other means of expressing evidential-like meanings 220
4 Conclusions 225
References 226
11 Nominalization, knowledge, and information source in Aguaruna
(Jivaroan) 227
Simon E. Overall
1 Background information and typological profie 227
2 Cultural practices 228
3 Expressing and talking about knowledge 229
4 Nominalization in Aguaruna 232
5 Why nominalize a verb if you’re going to use it to head a fiite clause? 239
6 Th areal context 242
References 242
12 Th grammar of knowledge in Tima 245
Gerrit J. Dimmendaal
1 Preliminary observations 245
2 Th temporal dimension: construction-type effcts 247
3 Th spatial dimension: the viewer-centred perspective 250
4 Th referential dimension: logophoricity marking as an evidential hedging
strategy 253
5 Sharing experiential knowledge: the expressive use of ideophones 256
6 Some preliminary conclusions 257
References 258
13 Saying, seeing, and knowing among the Karawari of Papua New Guinea 260
Borut Telban
1 Speaking 262
2 Th creation of knowledge 268
3 Aykapɨkan ‘remember, learn, reflct, know’ 271
4 Hearing and seeing 273
5 Mirativity 274
Contents ix
6 Conclusion 275
References 277
Index of authors 279
Index of languages, language families, and linguistic areas 282
Index of subjects 285